Section Two the Functions of Literature
文学，作为一种极其重要的理念而出现，是一种被赋予了多种功能的人类精神财富，在促进真正的人类文明中起着非常重要的作用。它至少起着下列作用：
Literature， emerged as an extremely important idea， is a special kind of human spirit wealth chargedwith many sorts of functions and plays a very important role in promoting the real civilization of human being.
It， at least， performs the following functions：
1．我们应该把文学所有的错综性和多样性看成一种由来已久的社会实践和机制，这种机制的基础是你能说出你想象得到的任何事情。不论什么正统思想、什么信仰、什么价值观，文学都可以想象出各种不同的、怪异荒诞的虚构故事来嘲笑它，戏仿它。文学一直具有通过虚构而超越前人所想所写的东西的可能性，如《西游记》因为在讥讽和戏仿的语境中使用了神圣的名字和主题而引起了轩然大波。任何看似合乎情理的东西，文学都可以使其变得荒谬不堪，都可以超越它， 都可以用一种向其合理性和充分性提出质疑的方式改变它。通过与那些人类智慧启迪者的思想和言语进行交流，我们的心与整个人类的感情合奏一个节拍。在人类忧虑、经营和争吵的低级生活的烟雾和动荡之上，在一片喧嚣和混乱之上有一个清澈而又明亮的地方，那就是真、善、美存在的地方，所有人都在那里相会，并以同样的方式交谈。
因此可以说，一切优秀的文学都在宣扬与体现人的规律，都在歌颂和传播着真、善、美，从而不断促进真正的人类文明。
1. We should note all the complexity and diversity of literature as a long social practice and institutionbased on the possibility of saying anything you can imagine. For any orthodoxy， any belief， any value， aliterary work imagine some different and monstrous fictions to mock it and parody it. Literature has possessedthe possibility of fictionally exceeding what has previously been thought and written， for example， Journeyto the West which has caused so much outrage for its use of sacred names and motifs in a context of satireand parody. For anything that seemed to make sense， literature could make it nonsense， go beyond it， andtransform it in a way that raised the question of its legitimacy and adequacy. By converse with the thoughtsand utterances of those who are intellectual leaders of the race， our heart comes to beat in accord with thefeeling of universal humanity. Above the smoke and stir， the din and turmoil of man’s lower life of care，business and debate， there is a serene and luminous region of truth， goodness and beauty where all may meetand expatiate in common. Therefore， it may be said that all good literature preaches and embodies humanlaw， praises and spreads truth， goodness and beauty， and consequently keeps promoting the real civilizationof human being.
2．一部文学作品，比如《哈姆雷特》，就其特点而言，是一个虚构人物的故事，而这个故事本身又在某些方面具有代表性（不然，你为什么想读它呢），但同时它拒绝界定那个有代表性的领域或范围——正因为如此，读者和批评家们才能如此轻松自如地谈论文学的“普遍性”。正是文学作品的这种结构才使我们比较容易把它们看做是在普遍意义上向我们讲述“人类境况”，而不是局限在它们所描述或者说明的具体范畴之内。《哈姆雷特》仅仅是关于王子的故事吗？仅仅是描述文艺复兴时期人物的故事吗？或者仅仅是有关喜欢内省的年轻人的故事？仅仅是关于那些父亲死因不明的人们的故事？既然所有这些都不是令人满意的答案，所以对读者来说，还是不回答更容易些，因此便默认了它的普遍性。我们中国读者，正如世界各国的读者一样，可以用不同的方式，在不同的层次上把《哈姆雷特》与真实的世界联系起来。我们发现《哈姆雷特》的故事与我国《西游记》中乌鸡国太子的故事非常相似，为什么呢？通过比较《哈姆雷特》和《西游记》生成的时代背景、作家的生平和作品的主题，不难看出英国人莎士比亚和中国人吴承恩对人性、人的生死和人生意义的认识相同。由此可见，文学可以促进国际交流，避免因语言文化差异而引起的误会或矛盾冲突，从而起到维护或保持世界和平的作用。
2．A literary work， for instance， Hamlet， is characteristically the story of a fictional character： itpresents itself as in some way exemplary (why else would you read it？) but it simultaneously declines todefine the range or scope of that exemplarity—hence the ease with which readers and critics come to speakabout the“universality”of literature. The structure of literary works is such that it is easier to take them astelling us about“the human condition”in general than to specify what narrower categories they describe orilluminate. Is Hamlet just about princes， or men of the Renaissance， or introspective young men， or peoplewhose fathers have died in obscure circumstances？ Since all such answers seem unsatisfactory， it is easierfor readers not to answer， thus implicitly accepting a possibility of universality. We Chinese readers， just likeall readers throughout the world， can relate Hamlet to the real world in different ways at several differentlevels. We have found that the story of Hamlet and the story of the Crown Prince of Wuji State in our Journeyto the West very much alike. Why？ By comparing the times and background of writing Hamlet with thatof writing Journey to the West， Shakespeare’s life with Wu Cheng’en’s life， the theme of Hamlet with thetheme of Journey to the West， it’s not difficult to find out the reason： the Englishman Shakespeare and theChinese Wu Cheng’en are identical in the views on human nature， the question“to be or not to be”and thesignificance of life. From here we can see that literature may promote international communication and avoidmisunderstandings or conflicts because of different languages and cultures， hence performs the function ofmaintaining or keeping the world peace.
3．提供普遍性和面对能够读懂这种语言的人，二者合一便产生了一种强大的民族性的作用。文学作品，尤其是小说，通过设定并吸引一个广大的读者群，有助于创造民族群体。这个民族群体是有界限的。不过，从原则上说，它又是向一切能够读懂它的语言的人敞开的。
虚构小说无声地、不断地渗入到现实当中，默默地创造着一种非凡的群体信念，这正是现代国家的特征。把文学中的人物、陈述人、情节和主题表现得具有普遍意义，目的就在于促成一个既开放又有界限的、假设的群体。事实上，越是强调文学的普遍性，它的民族作用就越大。例如肯定英国女作家简·奥斯汀眼里的世界具有普遍性，反倒使英国成为一个非常特殊的地方，成为一个品位高雅、行为规范的地方。而且，更重要的是，它有利于英国社会道德和社会环境的形成。在这样的环境之中，伦理道德问题得以解决，人格品质也得以塑造。
3．The combination of offering universality and addressing all those who can read the language hashad a powerful national function. Works of literature， particularly novels， help to create national communitiesby their postulation of and appeal to a broad community of readers， being bounded yet in principle opento all who can read the language. Fiction seeps quietly and continuously into reality， creating remarkableconfidence of community in anonymity which is the hallmark of modern nations. To present the characters，speakers， plots， and themes of some literature as polentially universal is to promote an open yet boundedimagined community. In fact， the more the universality of literature is stressed， the more it may have anational function. For instance， asserting the universality of the world vision offered by the Englishwomanwriter Jane Austen makes England a very special place indeed， a site of standards of taste and behaviour and，more important， of the moral scenarios and social circumstances in which ethical problems are worked outand personalities are formed.
4．文学是意识形态的手段，同时文学又是使其崩溃的工具。它具备社会的和政治的功能。文学作品通过在不同的阶级、性别、种族、国家和年龄的人们中提倡认同而促进了一种劝阻斗争的“同伴情感”，维护着社会稳定。但同时作品也可能会产生一种强烈的不公平意识，这种意识又使开展进步斗争成为可能。从历史的角度看，文学作品享有促进变革的声誉，例如美国女作家哈丽特·比彻·斯托的《汤姆叔叔的小屋》在那个时代就是一本畅销书，它促成了一场反对奴隶制的革命，这场革命又引发了美国的内战。
4．Literature is the vehicle of ideology and literature is also an instrument for its undoing. It performsthe social and political functions. By promoting identification across divisions of class， gender， race， nation，and age， literary works may promote a“fellow-feeling”that discourages struggle and maintain the socialstability； but they may also produce a keen sense of injustice that makes progressive struggles possible.
Historically， works of literature are credited with producing change： The American woman writer HarrietBeecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin， a best-seller in its day， helped create a revolution against slavery thatmade the American Civil War possible.
5．文学既是文化的杂音，又是文化的信息。它既是一种制造混乱的力量，又是一种文化资本。学习文学等于是一笔文化投资，它可能会以各种方式给你以回报，帮助你进入社会上层，特别是在现代社会里，在这样一个对个人和群体来说充满形形色色的又相互结合的社团、国家权力、传播行业和跨国公司的时代里。但是不能认为文学仅仅具有这种保守的社会功能。它不是“家庭价值观”的传播者。相反从弥尔顿《失乐园》中撒旦反叛上帝，到陀思妥耶夫斯基《罪与罚》中拉斯科尔尼科夫谋杀老妇人，可以说文学使各种罪恶具有了诱惑力。它鼓励抵制资本主义的价值观，反对由资本主义经济滋生出来的自私和物欲主义，为人们提供替代的价值观和文化资本。
5．Literature is the noise of culture as well as its information. It is an entropic force as well as culturalcapital. Learning about literature gives you a stake in culture that may pay off in various ways， helping you fitin with people of higher social status， particularly in the modern world， for individuals and groups， in a worldof diverse and intermingled communities， state power， media industries， and multinational corporations.
But literature cannot be reduced to this conservative social function： it is scarcely the purveyor of“familyvalues”but makes seductive all manner of crimes， from Satan’s revolt against God in Milton’s Paradise Lostto Raskolnikor’s murder of an old woman in Dostoevski’s Crime and Punishment. It encourages resistanceto capitalist values and counters the selfishness and materialism fostered by the capitalist economy， offeringpeople alternative values and giving them a stake in culture.
6．文学起到一种替代宗教的作用。宗教似乎不能再把整个社会团结在一起了。文学在传授中立的审美体验的同时培养一种民族自豪感。
6．Literature functions as a replacement for religion， which seems no longer to be able to hold societytogether. While teaching disinterested appreciation， literature provides a sense of national greatness.
7．每个国家的文学，实质上都表现其国民性。每个国家的文学都会歌颂其祖国，歌颂其人民，特别是民族英雄，从而培养爱国心。
7．Every nation’s literature is essentially the manifestation of its national spirit. Every nation’s literaturewill always sing the praises of its nation and its people， especially its national heroes， thus cultivating thepatriotism.
8．作为审美对象，文学可以使我们成为“更完美的人”。这种观点是和一种关于主体的思想相关的，理论界称这种主体为“自由主体”，即不受社会环境和利益界定，由个人主体性（理性和道德）界定的自由主体，根本不受社会决定因素的制约。这种与实用目的脱离，并且诱导独特的反思和认同的审美对象，帮助我们通过自由公正地运用想象功能而成为自由主体，而这种想象功能把理解力和判断力合理地结合起来。文学具有的这种能力是通过鼓励读者思考复杂的事物而不要急于作出判断，通过鼓励读者思考那些伦理是非问题，通过引导读者作为局外人或者像小说读者一样去检验行为（也包括检验他们自己的行为）而实现的。
它促进了客观公正，培养了鉴赏力和细微的辨别能力，产生了与处境不同的男女人物的认同，从而促成了集体感。
8．Literature， as an aesthetic object， may make us“better people”. This viewpoint is linked to acertain idea of the subject， to what theorists have come to call“the liberal subject”， the individual definednot by a social situation and interests but by an individual subjectivity (rationality and morality) conceivedas essentially free of social determinants. The aesthetic object， cut off from practical purposes and inducingparticular kinds of reflection and identifications， helps us to become liberal subjects through the free anddisinterested exercise of an imaginative faculty that combines knowing and judging in the right relation.
Literature does this by encouraging consideration of complexities without a rush to judgement， engagingthe mind in ethical issues， inducing readers to examine conduct (including their own) as an outsider or areader of novels would. It promotes disinterestedness， teaches sensitivity and fine discriminations， producesidentifications with men and women of other conditions， thus promoting fellow-feeling.
9．文学提供信息（知识）——古今中外政治及社会情况。每个人都需要一般知识和常识。“秀才不出门，便知天下事”，一点儿不假。难怪义务教育、素质教育或是通识教育，各级各类学校都要学习语文（语言和文学）课。语言和文学密不可分。文学总是显示着其语言恰当用来表达的最好思想感情而语言又是其文化的重要组成部分，所以，学习文学，我们不仅能学到“世界上表达出来的最佳思想和言论”，而且能提高我们的道德、人格和精神文明。
9．Literature gives information (knowledge) —of the political and social conditions of all times andplaces. Everyone is in need of general knowledge and common sense. It is quite right that a scholar， withoutgoing out， knows the world’s affairs well. No wonder all those who receive a compulsory education or a qualityeducation or a general education have to study the subject of Yu Wen (Language &；Literature) at all kinds ofschools at all levels. Language and literature are closely interrelated and can never be separated. Literatureof a nation always shows the best what its language can do when it is well used and its language is the key partof its culture. That’s why we say by learning literature we can not only learn“the best that has been thoughtand said in the world”but also improve our morality， personality and spiritual civilization.
10．文学能通过让作者宣泄他们的过分感情，让读者表达他们的同情，以恢复心态平衡，保持身心健康。
10．By giving an outlet to the writers relieving their excessive feelings and to the readers expressingtheir sympathy， literature can restore the balance of mind and help the writers and readers keep fit.
11．威廉·莎士比亚写到：“真、善、美，构成我全部的题材，我将真、善、美以不同的词句表现；我的创造力因这变化而充分施展，三个论题完美统一，题材空间自然无限。”“只要你在不朽的字里行间与时间并存，只要人类在繁衍，只要眼睛能看见，你就能与我的着作同在，亘古永恒。”这些话向我们表明是文学使莎士比亚的人生更有意义，是文学使莎士比亚、吴承恩、曹雪芹、雨果和很多其他人永远活在他们的读者心里。
11．What William Shakespeare has written—“Fair， kind， and true， is all my argument，Fair， kind， and true， varying to other words；And in this change is my invention spent，Three themes in one， which wondrous scope affords.”
“When in eternal lines to time thou growest；So long as men can breathe or eyes can see，So long lives this and this gives life to thee”—shows us that it is literature that makes Shakespeare’slife more significant and it is also literature that makes Shakespeare， Wu Cheng’en， Cao Xueqin， Hugo andmany others living forever in the hearts of their readers.
