登陆注册
5589700000006

第6章 POLITICAL CONDITIONS(1)

I.The British Constitution

The English Utilitarians represent one outcome of the speculations current in England during the later part of the eighteenth century.For the reasons just assigned I shall begin by briefly recalling some of the social conditions which set the problems for the coming generation and determined the mode of answering them.I must put the main facts in evidence,though they are even painfully familiar.The most obvious starting-point is given by the political situation.The supremacy of parliament had been definitively established by the revolution of 1688,and had been followed by the elaboration of the system of party government.The centre of gravity of the political world lay in the House of Commons.No minister could hold power unless he could command a majority in this house.Jealousy of the royal power,however,was still a ruling passion.The party line between Whig and Tory turned ostensibly upon this issue.The essential Whig doctrine is indicated by Dunning's famous resolution (6April 1780)that 'the power of the crown had increased,was increasing,and ought to be diminished.'The resolution was in one sense an anachronism.As in many other cases,politicians seem to be elaborately slaying the slain and guarding against the attacks of extinct monsters.There was scarcely more probability under George III than there is under Victoria that the king would try to raise taxes without consent of parliament.George III,however,desired to be more than a contrivance for fixing the great seal to official documents.He had good reason for thinking that the weakness of the executive was an evil.The king could gain power not by attacking the authority of parliament but by gaining influence within its walls.He might form a party of 'king's friends'able to hold the balance between the connections formed by the great families and so break up the system of party government.Burke's great speech (11Feb.1780)upon introducing his plan 'for the better security of the independence of parliament and the economical reformation of the civil and other establishments'explains the secret and reveals the state of things which for the next half century was to supply one main theme for the eloquence of reformers.The king had at his disposal a vast amount of patronage.There were relics of ancient institutions:the principality of Wales,the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall,and the earldom of Chester;each with its revenue and establishment of superfluous officials.

The royal household was a complex 'body corporate'founded in the old days of 'purveyance.'There was the mysterious 'Board of Green Cloth'formed by the great officers and supposed to have judicial as well as administrative functions.Cumbrous medieval machinery thus remained which had been formed in the time when the distinction between a public trust and private property was not definitely drawn or which had been allowed to remain for the sake of patronage,when its functions had been transferred to officials of more modern type.Reform was foiled,as Burke put it,because the turnspit in the king's kitchen was a member of parliament.Such sinecures and the pensions on the civil list or the Irish establishment provided the funds by which the king could build up a personal influence,which was yet occult,irresponsible,and corrupt.The measure passed by Burke in 1782(1)made a beginning in the removal of such abuses.

Meanwhile the Whigs were conveniently blind to another side of the question.

If the king could buy,it was because there were plenty of people both able and willing to sell.Bubb Dodington,a typical example of the old system,had five or six seats at his disposal:subject only to the necessity of throwing a few pounds to the 'venal wretches'who went through the form of voting,and by dealing in what he calls this 'merchantable ware'he managed by lifelong efforts to wriggle into a peerage.The Dodingtons,that is,sold because they bought.The 'venal wretches'were the lucky franchise-holders in rotten boroughs.The 'Friends of the People'(2)in 1793made the often-repeated statement that 154individuals returned 307members,that is,a majority of the house.In Cornwall,again,21boroughs with 453electors controlled by about 15individuals returned 42members,(3)or,with the two county members,only one member less than Scotland;and the Scottish members were elected by close corporations in boroughs and by the great families in counties.

No wonder if the House of Commons seemed at times to be little more than an exchange for the traffic between the proprietors of votes and the proprietors of offices and pensions.

The demand for the reforms advocated by Burke and Dunning was due to the catastrophe of the American War.The scandal caused by the famous coalition of 1783showed that a diminution of the royal influence might only make room for selfish bargains among the proprietors of parliamentary influence.The demand for reform was taken up by Pitt.His plan was significant.He proposed to disfranchise a few rotten boroughs;but to soften this measure he afterwards suggested that a million should be set aside to buy such boroughs as should voluntarily apply for disfranchisement.The seats obtained were to be mainly added to county representation;but the franchise was to be extended so as to add about 99,000voters in boroughs,and additional seats were to be given to London and Westminster and to Manchester,Leeds,Birmingham,and Sheffield.

The Yorkshire reformers,who led the movement,were satisfied with this modest scheme.The borough proprietors were obviously too strong to be directly attacked,though they might be induced to sell some of their power.

同类推荐
热门推荐
  • 知青草屋

    知青草屋

    散文集《知青草屋》,述说着作者下乡当知青时的所遇、所感、所悟。集子中的人、景、事愰然已距今四十几年了,虽某些章节根据需要做了一定艺术处理,但并不影响那代人曾经五彩缤纷的记忆。唯那人、那景、那事仍风和日丽,郁郁葱葱。
  • 淬火

    淬火

    一对闯入禁地的母子揭开了一座雾隐船城的面纱,将藏身于历史之中的神秘帮会带回视线。
  • 锋凌天下

    锋凌天下

    在叶锋眼里斗气最多只能够算得上是小孩子的把戏,魔法那最多是表演的升级,一个被称为废物的纨绔将要怎么样逆天改命,用修真来踏破一切规则,用强悍来书写异界的传奇。
  • 萌淑女驾到之天使候补生(小小姐贺岁系列)

    萌淑女驾到之天使候补生(小小姐贺岁系列)

    十二年前,小女孩度千寻跟随家人前往新西兰旅行,莫名失踪,家人寻遍全球也找不到。十二年后,已经成长为十五岁少女的度千寻神奇回归,欣喜若狂的家人决定为他举办一场盛大的生日舞会。在万众瞩目中,思维、举止均与正常人有很大差异的度千寻制造了一连串让人惊掉下巴的糗事,直接弄砸了自己的生日舞会,还成了上流社会茶余饭后的谈资。兄长度千辰为了让妹妹能够融入新生活,当一名合格的豪门淑女,特为他聘请了礼仪指导老师,并安排他进入了校规森严的圣特学院就读,接受300名淑女潜移默化的熏陶。
  • 网游之无双教皇

    网游之无双教皇

    11C只是一段数据,但在游戏世界,玩家又何尝不是一段数据。灵魂,源于思维和信念。 从新手村的光明独角兽到圣光城的光明圣龙,他诡异地掺和进了11C阵营势力的更替。 信徒、神官、白衣主祭,他表示奶爸很忙。 看圣光祭祀如何左右光暗之战、戏指天下英豪、笑看风起云落。 这,是一个善良奶妈的神棍之路…… (PS:本书华丽完结,新书开张——《网游之暴牙野猪王》 筒子们快到柳下碗里来,我的獠牙已经擦亮,吼!下面推荐位有新书链接!)
  • 世界仅有一只绿蚂蚁

    世界仅有一只绿蚂蚁

    一九二三年五月八日黎明,有人急促地敲打着枣庄镇邮局的门板。“是谁呀?”里面的灯亮了。“我,开门!”外面的声音很凶。“你要干啥?”“送信。”“不会等天亮么?”“少罗嗦,开门看看大爷是谁!”值夜班的是个没职没衔的练习生,他叫刘明理。抖索着从当作床铺的柜台上溜下来,向大门走去。哗啦,挡窗的板子被撬下一块。谁这么放肆?他有点恼火,正要发作,忽见窗玻璃上映出一张胡子拉茬的脸和一个乌黑的枪口。
  • 投资小窍门

    投资小窍门

    期货商品的买卖,主要是借助于保证金的交付而取得未来某一时间可实现交易的商品买卖合约,在合约到期日之前,投资者可以选择是否要实现这笔买卖,如果当时这项商品的价格高于签约时的价格,则投资人可以按合约签订的价格,将余款缴清之后,取得商品,如果当时这项商品的价格低于签约时的价格,则在权衡利益之后,投资者也可以选择放弃保证金,取消契约,而以较低的价格购买现货。所以。期货的交易就如同预付订金的买卖商品方式一样,购买入在交付订金时只取得商品未来预先购买的权利,等到合约到期日并缴清余款之后才能取得商品的所有权。
  • 王者荣耀之职业高手

    王者荣耀之职业高手

    【2018王者荣耀文学大赛·征文参赛作品】我叫王小生,王者荣耀世界冠军六连冠。按照这个节奏拿下七连冠简直如喝白开水一样简单,谁知道可能是贼老天嫉妒本人的才华,把我扔进了异世界.....
  • 告密者

    告密者

    小说《告密者》是“福建小说新干将”鸿琳继《梨城叛徒》《寻找慈恩塔》之后,为他的“梨城系列”新添的第三朵“梨花”——梨城盛产梨花吗?三部小说均以抗战为背景,以一个知识分子——地方志编纂者——的眼光重新审视那段历史中的人和事儿:《梨城叛徒》企图为“叛徒”正名;《寻找慈恩塔》探寻地下工作者保守秘密的原因;最新的《告密者》呢?
  • 锦州府志

    锦州府志

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。汇聚授权电子版权。