登陆注册
5589700000102

第102章 BENTHAM'S DOCTRINE(24)

The individual is already there.The moral and the legal sanctions are 'external';something imposed by the action of others;corresponding to 'coercion,'whether by physical force or the dread of public opinion;and,in any case,an accretion or addition,not a profound modification of his whole nature.The Utilitarian 'man'therefore inclines to consider other people as merely parts of the necessary machinery.Their feelings are relevant only as influencing their outward conduct.If a man gives me a certain 'lot'of pain or pleasure,it does not matter what may be his motives.The 'motive'for all conduct corresponds in all cases to the pain or pleasure accruing to the agent.It is true that his happiness will be more or less affected by his relations to others.But as conduct is ruled by a calculation of the balance of pains or pleasures dependent upon any course of action,it simplifies matters materially,if each man regards his neighbour's feelings simply as instrumental,not intrinsically interesting.And thus the coincidence between that conduct which maximises my happiness and that conduct which maximises happiness in general,must be regarded as more or less accidental or liable in special cases to disappear.

If I am made happier by action which makes others miserable,the rule of utility will lead to my preference of myself.

Here we have the question whether the Utilitarian system be essentially a selfish system.Bentham,with his vague psychology,does not lay down the doctrine absolutely.After giving this list of self-regarding 'springs of action,'he proceeds to add the pleasures and pains of 'sympathy'and 'antipathy'which,he says,are not self-regarding.Moreover,as we have seen,he has some difficulty in denying that 'benevolence'is a necessarily moral motive:it is only capable of prompting to bad conduct in so far as it is insufficiently enlightened;and it is clear that a moralist who makes the 'greatest happiness of the greatest number'his universal test,has some reason for admitting as an elementary pleasure the desire for the greatest happiness.This comes out curiously in the Constitutional Code.He there lays down the 'self-preference principle'--the principle,namely,that 'every human being'is determined in every action by his judgment of what will produce the greatest happiness to himself,'whatsoever be the effect.in relation to the happiness of other similar beings,any or all of them taken together.'(117)Afterwards,however,he observes that it is 'the constant and arduous task or every moralist'and of every legislator who deserves the name to 'increase the influence of sympathy at the expense of that of self-regard and of sympathy for the greater number at the expense of sympathy for the lesser number.'(118)He tries to reconcile these views by the remark 'that even sympathy has its root in self-regard,'and he argues,as Mr Herbert Spencer has done more fully,that if Adam cared only for Eve and Eve only for Adam --neither caring at all for himself or herself --both would perish in less than a year.Self-regard,that is,is essential,and sympathy supposes its existence.Hence Bentham puts himself through a catechism.(119)What is the 'best'government?That which causes the greatest happiness of the given community.What community?

'Any community,which is as much as to say,every community.'But why do you desire this happiness?Because the establishment of that happiness would contribute to my greatest happiness.And how do you prove that you desire this result?By my labours to obtain it,replies Bentham.This oddly omits the more obvious question,how can you be sure that your happiness will be promoted by the greatest happiness of all?What if the two criteria differ?

I desire the general happiness,he might have replied,because my benevolence is an original or elementary instinct which can override my self-love;or I desire it,he would perhaps have said,because I know as a fact that the happiness of others will incidentally contribute to my own.The first answer would fall in with some of his statements;but the second is,as I think must be admitted,more in harmony with his system.Perhaps,indeed,the most characteristic thing is Bentham's failure to discuss explicitly the question whether human action is or is not necessarily 'selfish.'He tells us in regard to the 'springs of action'that all human action is always 'interested,'but explains that the word properly includes actions in which the motive is not 'self-regarding.'(120)It merely means,in fact,that all conduct has motives.The statement which I have quoted about the 'self-preference'principle may only mean a doctrine which is perfectly compatible with a belief in 'altruism'--the doctrine,namely,that as a fact most people are chiefly interested by their own affairs.The legislator,he tells us,should try to increase sympathy,but the less he takes sympathy for the 'basis of his arrangements'--that is,the less call he makes upon purely unselfish motives --the greater will be his success.(121)This is a shrewd and,I should say,a very sound remark,but it implies --not that all motives are selfish in the last analysis,but --that the legislation should not assume too exalted a level of ordinary morality.The utterances in the very unsatisfactory Deontology are of little value,and seem to imply a moral sentiment corresponding to a petty form of commonplace prudence.(122)Leaving this point,however,the problem necessarily presented itself to Bentham in a form in which selfishness is the predominating force,and any recognition of independent benevolence rather an incumbrance than a help.

同类推荐
  • 筹河篇

    筹河篇

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。汇聚授权电子版权。
  • Maitre Cornelius

    Maitre Cornelius

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。汇聚授权电子版权。
  • 天机经

    天机经

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。汇聚授权电子版权。
  • 佛说法集名数经

    佛说法集名数经

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。汇聚授权电子版权。
  • 薛文清公从政录

    薛文清公从政录

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。汇聚授权电子版权。
热门推荐
  • 毒舌妖王一边去

    毒舌妖王一边去

    林乐乐梦中得宝,人生开挂,除妖怪,赚大钱,遇见各种光怪陆离,可她想不明白世上怎么会有凌云彻这样的一个人。“你能不能说话委婉一点,委婉懂吗?”“你是让我说瞎话,不行,做人不能违背良心说谎。”反正她是不会承认上辈子跟这家伙有一腿,妖王转世,果然是跟正常人不太一样…
  • 红楼梦(中国古典文学名著典藏)

    红楼梦(中国古典文学名著典藏)

    《红楼梦》以贾宝玉、林黛玉、薛宝钗之间的恋爱婚姻悲剧为主线,以贾、王、史、薛四大家族兴衰沉浮为背景,描写了封建贵族家庭各种错综复杂的矛盾,塑造了一系列贵族、平民以及奴隶出身的女子的悲剧形象,暴露了封建贵族阶级及其统治的腐朽与罪恶,曲折地反映了封建社会必然崩溃、没落的历史趋势。小说全面真实地展现了广阔复杂的社会生活,堪称我国封建社会后期社会生活的百科全书。作品对封建社会的婚姻、道德、文化、教育的腐朽、堕落进行了深刻反思,歌颂了封建贵族的叛逆者和自由美好、违反礼教的爱情,体现出追求个性自由的初步的民主主义思想。
  • 优雅小主妇的美容养颜经

    优雅小主妇的美容养颜经

    女人如花,花如女人。花有淡雅清新的,也有馥郁芳香的;有冰清玉洁的,也有热情奔放的。但无论是哪一种,都有它耐人寻味的地方,正所谓“一花一世界”。每一个女人都是一朵独一无二的花,女人那如花的容貌,构成了这世上一道独特的风景。
  • 大佬你的糖酥掉了

    大佬你的糖酥掉了

    【1v1】,全程甜甜甜,无虐。遇见唐酥前。高冷:“谈恋爱?能有打架有意思?”妖冶魔君:“娶妻?比得上吾族大业?”霸道总裁:“一亿以下的单子别来找我。”……后来,甜甜的唐酥小可爱出现了。高冷·妖冶魔君·霸道总裁:“真香!”
  • 俏医仙

    俏医仙

    本以为这一世会竹庐行医,了此余生,想不到,被个魔头绑架了;本以为魔头凶猛,冷酷嗜杀,自己小命难保,想不到,这魔头竟是个熊孩子;本以为跟了这武功天下第一的熊孩子自此无忧,想不到,阴云涌动,奸佞横行,前途竟有如此之多的险阻,命运竟有如此繁复的转折,她这手无缚鸡之力的娇俏医女如何力挽乾坤?
  • 左爷:请接招

    左爷:请接招

    初见,撕衣。二见,强吻。三见,压身。穆念亭看着眼前冷静非常的男人,而他却无视她的冷眸,轻笑道,下次见面,会不会是床上?穆念亭咬唇,左爷,您可有一个温婉如玉的未婚妻呢!他不以为然,退了就是。殊不知,她口中的未婚妻就是她。自此,名声在外轰动江陵城的左爷走上一条视妻如命的道路。众人惊呼:左爷宠妻不要命,虐遍所有人,只为红颜一笑!
  • 雪球专刊第044期:家庭理财实用指南

    雪球专刊第044期:家庭理财实用指南

    债券(包含可转券)的确定性强一些,计划用两个月的时间掌握常用投资思路。然后主要是学习股市中的知识。以价值投资为准绳,由面到点,逐步深入学习。具体来说,就是学习格雷厄姆、彼得·林奇、巴菲特等人的书籍,建立投资思想,然后学习财报分析知识,再选三四个关联度弱的行业慢慢深入(目前设想是:电力、医药、钢铁、快消品)。
  • 樱花之缘

    樱花之缘

    空难夺去了她父母的生命,她的笑容不再快乐,她变了,不再任性了,变得安静了。女友离去,他冷酷依旧。当彼此相遇,他发现她才是他小时候遇到的女孩。她的离开让他撕心裂肺的痛,她的记忆中不再有他让他绝望。当她记起了他,他却拥着另一个女生,幸好她的身边有另一个他为她擦泪。一次又一次的擦肩而过,他们最终如何结束?
  • 太上老君说补谢八阳经

    太上老君说补谢八阳经

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。汇聚授权电子版权。
  • 海贼王之海航记

    海贼王之海航记

    加莱捂着头,茫然的看着四周,视线落在不远处的桅杆上:这里是……海贼船?明明记得被什么人从后面打了一下就失去了知觉。啊,不管怎么样,居然意外见到了他,最爱的船长大人。哟西,从今天开始,我会一直跟随您的,船长大人!哪怕前路坎坷(还没允许你上船吧喂!)本文海贼穿越同人,其中人物性格也许稍有改变,欢迎大家按抓收藏(握拳:为了最爱的船长大人:罗!)