登陆注册
5264500000037

第37章 CHAPTER III MEDIAEVAL MEDICINE(7)

THE most striking intellectual phenomenon of the thirteenth century is the rise of the universities. The story of their foundation is fully stated in Rashdall's great work (Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, Oxford, 1895). Monastic and collegiate schools, seats of learning like Salernum, student guilds as at Bologna, had tried to meet the educational needs of the age. The word "university" literally means an association, and was not at first restricted to learned bodies. The origin appears to have been in certain guilds of students formed for mutual protection associated at some place specially favorable for study--the attraction generally being a famous teacher. The University of Bologna grew up about guilds formed by students of law, and at Paris, early in the twelfth century, there were communities of teachers, chiefly in philosophy and theology. In this way arose two different types of mediaeval university. The universities of Northern Italy were largely controlled by students, who were grouped in different "nations." They arranged the lectures and had control of the appointment of teachers. On the other hand, in the universities founded on the Paris model the masters had control of the studies, though the students, also in nations, managed their own affairs.

Two universities have a special interest at this period in connection with the development of medical studies, Bologna and Montpellier. At the former the study of anatomy was revived. In the knowledge of the structure of the human body no advance had been made for more than a thousand years--since Galen's day. In the process of translation from Greek to Syriac, from Syriac to Arabic, from Arabic to Hebrew, and from Hebrew or Arabic to Latin, both the form and thought of the old Greek writers were not infrequently confused and often even perverted, and Galen's anatomy had suffered severely in the transmission. Our earliest knowledge of the teaching of medicine at Bologna is connected with a contemporary of Dante, Taddeo Alderotti, who combined Arabian erudition with the Greek spirit. He occupied a position of extraordinary prominence, was regarded as the first citizen of Bologna and a public benefactor exempt from the payment of taxes.

That he should have acquired wealth is not surprising if his usual fees were at the rate at which he charged Pope Honorius IV, i.e., two hundred florins a day, besides a "gratification" of six thousand florins.

The man who most powerfully influenced the study of medicine in Bologna was Mundinus, the first modern student of anatomy. We have seen that at the school of Salernum it was decreed that the human body should be dissected at least once every five years, but it was with the greatest difficulty that permission was obtained for this purpose. It seems probable that under the strong influence of Taddeo there was an occasional dissection at Bologna, but it was not until Mundinus (professor from 1306 to 1326) took the chair that the study of anatomy became popular.

The bodies were usually those of condemned criminals, but in the year 1319 there is a record of a legal procedure against four medical students for body-snatching--the first record, as far as I know, of this gruesome practice. In 1316, Mundinus issued his work on anatomy, which served as a text-book for more than two hundred years. He quotes from Galen the amusing reasons why a man should write a book: "Firstly, to satisfy his own friends; secondly, to exercise his best mental powers; and thirdly, to be saved from the oblivion incident to old age." Scores of manuscripts of his work must have existed, but they are now excessively rare in Italy. The book was first printed at Pavia in 1478, in a small folio without figures. It was very often reprinted in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The quaint illustration shows us the mediaeval method of teaching anatomy: the lecturer sitting on a chair reading from Galen, while a barber surgeon, or an "Ostensor," opens the cavities of the body.

I have already referred to the study of medicine by women at Salernum. Their names are also early met with in the school of Bologna. Mundinus is said to have had a valuable assistant, a young girl, Alessandra Giliani, an enthusiastic dissector, who was the first to practice the injection of the blood vessels with colored liquids. She died, consumed by her labors, at the early age of nineteen, and her monument is still to be seen.

Bologna honored its distinguished professors with magnificent tombs, sixteen or seventeen of which, in a wonderful state of preservation, may still be seen in the Civic Museum. That of Mundinus also exists--a sepulchral bas-relief on the wall of the Church of San Vitale at Bologna.[19]

[19] For these figures and for points relating to the old school at Bologna see F. G. Cavezza: Le Scuole dell' antico Studio Bolognese, Milano, 1896.

The other early mediaeval university of special interest in medicine is that of Montpellier. With it are connected three teachers who have left great names in our story--Arnold of Villanova, Henri de Mondeville and Guy de Chauliac. The city was very favorably situated not far from the Spanish border, and the receding tide of the Arab invasion in the eighth century had left a strong Arabic influence in that province. The date of the origin of the university is uncertain, but there were teachers of medicine there in the twelfth century, though it was not until 1289 that it was formally founded by a papal bull.

同类推荐
  • 集古今佛道论衡实录

    集古今佛道论衡实录

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。汇聚授权电子版权。
  • PAZ

    PAZ

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。汇聚授权电子版权。
  • 平胡录

    平胡录

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。汇聚授权电子版权。
  • 妙吉祥平等瑜伽秘密观身成佛仪轨

    妙吉祥平等瑜伽秘密观身成佛仪轨

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。汇聚授权电子版权。
  • 卧游录

    卧游录

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。汇聚授权电子版权。
热门推荐
  • 范大早的一天

    范大早的一天

    手表和手机是有的。虽然范大早的手表和手机都是用便宜得不能再便宜的价钱买的,而且用了好几年了,但是,他早上起床是根本不用看时间的。他来医院打工有年头了,早已习惯了自己的作息时间,他的脑子,像老家井台边硌出的深深的麻绳印一般,已经硌出了痕。每天照旧是一大早就能醒,而且,睁开眼睛的时间不早不迟,都是四点半。范大早听说过生物钟这几个字,只是搞不清楚这个词具体的意思,也不想搞清楚。他想,呵!什么生物钟不生物钟的?什么钟都不会有我脑子里的钟那么准。他不知道他自己每天早上能准时醒来,就是生物钟的作用。
  • 世纪阴谋

    世纪阴谋

    故事阴谋始,亦由阴谋终。一书荒唐史,真真假假中。假托妄史,虚构玄妙,若诸君有感似曾相识,不过是巧合罢了,切莫当真。此书所写乃一孤儿之事。家族因奸人之阴谋而惨遭灭门,而后远遁异域蒙故人相救,从而开启了别样的人生。一段传奇,就此展开!
  • 山水问君心:古诗词中的山水世界

    山水问君心:古诗词中的山水世界

    本书分为六章,从不同角度解析历代的山水田园诗歌的艺术造诣和创作背景,并介绍了诗词作者们的生平经历,较完整地勾勒出了我国古代山水田园诗歌的发展脉络,是一本不错的诗歌赏析类读物。
  • 木锡镇

    木锡镇

    讲述了一个男人在只有六间客房的小旅馆里突然失踪;性格木讷的老警察在给眼科专家打过一通电话后,同样在这家旅馆消失了;一个女人为了寻找自己丢失的猫,匆匆来到旅馆,又神秘离去。木锡镇,这个人口不足千人的小镇。因为这一系列的失踪案,变得不再平静……偶尔来小镇旅游的法医谷平。在木雕店店主狄亮的帮助下。凭借在旅馆房间内找到的一片皮肤组织和大量血痕,终于找到了真正的凶手。
  • 国民千金之重生学霸逆袭

    国民千金之重生学霸逆袭

    【重生、1V1轻松向、打脸虐渣】表面,她是一无是处遭人嗤笑的废物大小姐,跟着净身出户的母亲相依为命。公司遭亲爸逼迫破产,继母羞辱算计房子,被奉为学霸女神的继妹对她不屑一顾。实则,她是上流社会被当神供着的风水届大师,受人尊崇。且看废物大小姐如何涅磐重生,用相面、算卦、堪舆、六爻之术,打脸渣爸一家,保家产、护至亲、当学霸……一不小心,就被一只英俊多金腹黑男盯上,表白是酱紫的:“结婚吧!买一送一那种。” 于妗:emmmm,这个风度翩翩的亲生儿砸,比她还大。
  • 太上洞真五星秘授经

    太上洞真五星秘授经

    本书为公版书,为不受著作权法限制的作家、艺术家及其它人士发布的作品,供广大读者阅读交流。汇聚授权电子版权。
  • 奇宝恩仇

    奇宝恩仇

    义救结盟图大业,民国二十一年夏日里的一天,刚刚下过一场暴雨,北镇县城内万物如洗,行人如织。这时,从东门外走出一男一女两个人来。这两个人衣着华贵,一看就不是普通百姓。
  • 重生之都市修神

    重生之都市修神

    这是一个纵横万域星空的人族仙帝重生回少年,装逼打脸的故事。你是国家最神秘强大的秘密武器?那就请你继续保持神秘,不然我就让你成为秘密;你是隐藏在都市扮猪吃老虎的最强佣兵之王?那就请你继续扮猪,不然我就让你成为真正的猪头;你是全球黑榜第一杀手?长得还不错,给我做暖床丫鬟吧。
  • 回家(中短篇小说)

    回家(中短篇小说)

    秋天的这个下午,日本釜石海边的福山饭店渐渐安静下来。中午的鲅鱼水饺全部卖光了,饭店老板和两个日本女服务生开始准备晚上的水饺。方成安是个干练的男人,长脸高个,一表人才。两个日本女孩一高一矮。高一点儿的叫清慧子;叫水井绢带的个子很小,如同小学生一样,脸上永远都是笑,口齿十分伶俐。方成安十分认真地传授如何调鲅鱼馅,操作程序相当严谨。方成安是用竹子刀片来刮鲅鱼肉的,不能用铁器刀具,那上面有铁的味道,如此的味道可能改变鲅鱼的鲜美。弄好肉之后再用竹刀剁碎,之后放进木盆里搅动,一边搅动一边加水一边加白肉。
  • 帝后来自天族

    帝后来自天族

    他是一心统领魔界的王,而她本身就是这世间可以助他得到最大的力量的丹药,所以他费劲心机的接近她。多年之后,知道一切真相的她站在尼驼山的山巅,一身红衣潇洒释然。她说:“既然他看魔界比我重要,那么我就抢了他这魔界,如何?”她性格难以捉摸,是仙界最难让人头疼的存在,可是,却偏偏为了一个男人堕了魔。仙界众生镜前,一个个仙风道骨的老头子看着一袭白衫,站在魔界胥蔓之花的花海中的人,捶胸顿足的哀叹:这可是他们仙界唯一的一个小仙主啊!他站在她的面前,敛眉看着她,眼中神色不定:“你这是做什么?”“呵……”她低笑一声,眉间尽是张扬和霸气。“北冥王看不出来吗?我当然是来抢了你的魔王之位,然后~睡你的!”